No Topic Necessary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

No Topic Necessary - Essay Example Apparently, the story of Buddha in the myth is intertwined with other deities, especially Christianity (Campbell, 30). These other deities are seen as being weak and temporary as opposed to Buddhism which remains immovable even in the future. Actually, the writer emphasizes the superiority of Buddhism in Oriental antiquity as compared to other deities. In today’s society, comparisons between religious deities and implications of ancient spiritual narratives remain influential. More often, these comparisons are divisive in nature. In the Hero’s story, the hero asserts that Buddha is immovable and superior in the presence of other deities (Campbell, 35). In today’s society, the spiritual heroism of Moses in the Old Testament remains the central narrative in the Jewish religion. Personally, I agree that Moses transformed into a heavenly level when he encountered God around the burning bush at Mont Sinai. Prescription of the Ten Commandments sealed God’s covenant with the Israelites in a similar manner that Gautama linked Buddhists with Buddha. In this context, the spiritual experience of Moses in the Old Testament, which is influential in today’s Jewish and Christian religions, is synonymous to the spiritual adventure of Gautama Sakyamuni in the

Management Change Excercise Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Management Change Excercise - Research Paper Example The steps include creation of urgency, development of powerful coalition, creation of a change vision, communication of the change vision, eradication of obstacles, creation of short-term success goals, building on the change, and integration of change into the corporate culture of the organization (Mind Tools, 2012).The first step in the process of change management requires the organizational leaders to convince the organizational personnel that a certain change needs to be there on urgent basis because of certain reasons (Coutts, 2000). If this action is not taken, people would underestimate the need of change. In the second step, the organizational leaders need to develop a team which facilitates gaining of people’s consent for change implementation. If this action is not taken, much more effort would be required to convince individuals because they would be scattered and not members of the same team. In the third step, the leader needs to develop a relation between change and a big vision in order to make it easier for the followers to realize what is happening. If this action is not taken, followers would have subjective idea of what is happening. In the fourth step, measures need to be taken to quickly communicate the change and spread the vision. If this action is not taken, there would not be uniformity of approach due to lack of information in certain followers. In the fifth step, the leader needs to recognize the barriers in the way of implementation of change and do whatever is required to remove them. If this action is not taken, the change process is likely to be interrupted along the way. In the sixth step, the leader should appreciate together with the followers the achievement of intermediary goals. If this action is not taken, followers might lose interest as there is little realization of achievement of preliminary goals. In the seventh step, the leader should emphasize upon a need for the followers to continue working in the same dire ction so that the achievement of preliminary goals leads to the attainment of the ultimate goal. If this action is not taken, followers might become over-confident and not do the needful. In the eighth step, the followers need to be motivated to constantly review the change process and keep modifying it to attain optimal results. If this action is not taken, the change may not bring the desired results. Each of the eight steps included in the Kotter’s model is essentially an action that requires a complete strategy to be taken effectively. Implementation of change and its management as suggested by Kotter requires sound management skills in an individual. As a manager, I have good oratory skills and thus, can convince people or for the least, present my opinion in an apprehensible manner. I am good at taking actions pertaining to all the steps of Kotter’s eight step model generally. However, I need a little improvement in the fourth, seventh and eighth step. This is be cause of the fact that I am a little careless due to which, I might not be able to make sure that the process of change is communicated to all of the organizational personnel. This requires a bit of organization on my part. I find it difficult to recollect myself if the continuity in a process is broken. So after the sixth step, in which I as a manager would celebrate preliminary goals with the organizational personnel, it might be difficult for me to develop the focus again to make sure that

How to write a job application

How to write a job application After completing your studies, when you decide to take up a job in a particular industry depending on your skills and qualifications, the first thing that you will be required to do is to write an application for a job. But getting a job that suits you would take more than sending out a few application letters. First of all, you need to find out what skills you have to offer and what your expectations are from your work. Then on the basis of this, you can identify the employers that may be in search of a person with skills that you possess and that also fit the job profile that you are looking for. The letter of application is also called the letter of transmittal. It is written when you get to know of a specific job opening and you want to apply for it directly. It is always accompanied by a resume/CV. Thus, the letter of job application can be divided into two parts: a) Covering Letter and b) Resume/Curriculum Vitae (i.e. CV). The cover letter should introduce you and should give further details about certain qualifications and skills that may not be apparent from your resume. So ideally, a resume should always be sent along with a covering letter. Remember, you should mention only the qualifications, skills and experience that are relevant to the job that your are applying for. DRAFTING AN APPLICATION LETTER A letter of application is your very first communication with the prospective employer. He will form his first impression about you from your application letter. That is why it is very essential that your application letter should be neat, well-structured and should provide all the necessary information at a glance. What you basically set out to do in your application letter is to sell your skills and services. Thus, your application letter is a form of advertising. And the key feature of effective advertising is that it should be persuasive. An application letter therefore is also some kind of a sales letter. It should project your skills keeping in mind the employers and a particular jobs requirement. This kind of job analysis and self-appraisal will help you to identify which jobs suit you and where you should not apply. For example, if it is specifically mentioned in the advertisement for the post of schoolteachers that the school requires someone with minimum three years of teac hing experience and you have just graduated, then there is no point in applying for this post as you will be found ineligible. Again, if a company requires a smart, young receptionist with good communication and people skills and you are someone who is of reserved and laidback nature, then you should not apply for it. Before drafting an application letter, you must ask yourself these questions- 1. What sort of qualifications and experience are needed for this particular job? 2. Do I have the required skills and experience? 3. Am I suitable for this job? How? Once you have answered these questions, the next step is to narrow down your focus on the qualities and skills that the employer is looking for and to highlight those in your application letter. This does not mean that you make exaggerated claims. You should be honest, sincere and modest. If you possess the required qualifications, skills and experience, then only you should apply for a particular job. And you should provide necessary documents for verification of your declarations. Job application letter is an interesting blend of the features of a personal letter and a sales letter. Therefore, it should reflect your creativity and also your personal style. So as an applicant/writer, just be yourself and also a little businesslike in your approach. The main object of an application letter is to get you an interview. Therefore, it is essential that your letter should stimulate the employers interest in your skills and accomplishments and it should give him a clear idea about how you can satisfy the organisations needs. You should project your skills with confidence and this is possible only when you believe in yourself and your capabilities. TYPES OF APPLICATION LETTERS There are two types of application letters: a) solicited application letters and b) unsolicited application letters. Solicited application letters are those that are sent in response to job advertisements, whereas unsolicited application letters (also known as prospecting letters) are written at the applicants initiative. This is the fundamental theoretical difference between the two. In the first one, you write directly for the post advertised. In the latter one, you acquaint the prospective employer with the qualifications and skills that you possess and leave it to him to identify whether your profile is suitable for any of the positions in his organization and whether he should consider you for the same. But in practice, there is hardly any difference between the structure and the content of both these types of letters. Whether writing a solicited or an unsolicited application letter, the applicant has to mention his personal details, qualifications, skills and experience that ar e relevant to the job. Besides, the letters of application can also be framed in two different ways: All the information about the applicants qualifications, experience and personal details can be included in one comprehensive letter. OR The application letter can be divided into two parts. The first part is the covering letter which refers to the advertisement in response to which you are applying and in it you also highlight your most relevant and significant skills and qualifications for the advertised post. The second part is the resume which lists all the necessary personal and educational information in an easy-to-read format. The layout b) is the widely preferred and the most effective format as it gives the applicant an opportunity to display his skills and personality in an attention-grabbing and succinct manner thus generating the employers interest in his resume and getting him to read it in the first place. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD COVERING LETTER The covering letter has one purpose- to attract the attention and sustain the interest of your prospective employer in your resume and thus get him to call you for a job interview. Therefore, your covering letter is not just a simple note that forwards an enclosure i.e. your resume and other relevant documents. Rather, it is a selling-piece. It should have the qualities of an effective sales letter. Besides, in your job application letter, you must focus on- The job requirements as specified by the employer- qualifications, skills, experience The special qualities you possess that will make you stand out from the rest (for an announced job opening, you will have to compete with hundreds of other job seekers) Your knowledge about the organization Your communication skills, problem-solving ability, people skills, etc. An effective covering letter should have the following features: It should be informative and to the point. The tone of the letter should be friendly but avoid being too casual or informal. Keep the covering letter to a single page, three paragraphs is ideal. Do not use the same covering letter while applying at different places. The style and layout is very important. Avoid grammatical and spelling errors. Use good quality paper and printing. Take care not to crumple the edges or stain the paper. Your letter should not appear overloaded with information. Leave enough white space, so that it looks appealing to the eye. The covering letter is a kind of persuasive, goodwill message. Show genuine interest in the organization and a keen interest in the position that you are seeking. Omit personal information that is not relevant to the job. Edit the letter carefully to make sure that there are no errors. FORMAT AND CONTENTS OF AN APPLICATION LETTER An application letter may be written in two formats: the complete block format (the latest and better preferred American format) or the semi-block format (the traditional British format). In the complete block format (also known as the full block format), every line is left-aligned i.e. it starts at the left margin. And nothing is indented. Whereas, in the semi-block format, the senders address, date and the complimentary close are indented. Even the paragraphs may be indented. An application letter has the following parts: The Senders Address and the Date In the semi-block format, these are written at the top right corner of the letter. Whereas, in the complete block format, the senders address and date are written at the top left corner of the letter. The date should be written in the American format (mm/dd/yy i.e. July 30, 2010) if you are writing in the complete block style and in the British format (dd/mm/yy i.e. 30 July, 2010) if you are using the semi-block layout. Leave one space between the address and the date. Also, the applicants address and date should be written in open punctuation (i.e. no punctuation). Example: Closed Punctuation Open Punctuation Divya Shah(,) Divya Shah 305, Clover Garden Society(,) 305, Clover Garden Society Alkapuri(,) Alkapuri Vadodara(.) Vadodara July 30, 2010(.) July 30, 2010 (Or) (Or) 30 July, 2010(.) 30 July, 2010 The Inside Address The inside address or the receivers/employers address should also be written in open punctuation. It should be one or two spaces below the date. It should always be left-aligned. If it is a solicited application, the inside address will begin with the designation and not the name of the person to whom it is to be addressed. Example: (To) (To) The Manager The Personnel Manager Aditya Birla Group OR Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd New Delhi Baroda If the name of the person to whom the application is to be addressed or the identification of the advertiser is not disclosed in the job advertisement and if only the post box or a newspaper box number to which the application is to be sent is given, then the inside address will be written as: (To) (To) The Advertiser The Advertiser Post Box No. 2509 OR Box No. 2203 Vadodara- 390004 The Times of India Ahmedabad- 380001 If it is an unsolicited application, then the letter should be addressed to the concerned person/officer. Example- The Employment Officer/ The Accounts Officer/ The Manager/ The Dean/ The Principal etc. Subject and Reference Leave one or two spaces after the inside address and state in one line the purpose of the application letter (i.e. the Subject). Leave one more space and write the Reference i.e. if someone has referred you for the post, then you may mention his/her name and designation. Writing the reference is optional. The Salutation Dear Sir is the most common salutation used in application letters. But you may try some of the following ways to open a letter depending on the context in which you are communicating. However, you should be careful in selecting an appropriate salutation. Context Salutation 1. Addressing someone in a company Dear Sir/Madam 2. Addressing a man whose name Dear Sir you do not know 3. Addressing a woman whose name Dear Madam you do not know 4. Informal way of addressing a man Dear Mr. Parekh 5. Informal way of addressing a woman Dear Ms. Dixit Remember, it is inappropriate and impolite to use the first name of a person in the salutation. For instance, Dear Ms. Deepa. Also, first names are never preceded by a title (Mr. Siddharth or Ms. Nirmita). The Body of the Letter It is often divided into three parts: The Opening/Introductory Paragraph It gives details about why you are writing the application letter and which position or type of work you are seeking. It also makes clear whether it is a solicited application or an unsolicited one. The opening paragraph should catch the readers attention and create interest in your resume. In a solicited letter, you may use a simple opening as you have been invited to apply and your focus therefore is not so much on capturing the readers attention. You may open your letter in one of the following ways: Summary opening- Mention your most relevant qualifications and/or experience and explain how it can benefit the organization. Example: With my three years experience as the Assistant Advertising Manager at Mudra Communication Pvt. Ltd., I feel confident that I can ably perform the duties of an Advertising Manager, the post announced by you in The Hindustan Times datedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Name opening- Mention the name of the person (if he is known to the reader) who has suggested that you apply for the job. Example: Professor Kulkarni informed me of a job opening for the post of Assistant Professor in your institution. My qualifications and experience suit the eligibility criteria and I would be glad if you find my profile suitable for the post and consider me for the same. I would indeed be very fortunate if I get an opportunity to be associated with your reputed college. Source opening- Make a reference to the newspaper in which the job advertisement was published. Briefly explain how you possess the necessary skills, qualifications and experience that suit the requirements of the target position. Example: With reference to your advertisement in The Times of India dated 25 July, 2010, I hereby apply for the post of Sales Executive. Or I wish to apply for the post of Marketing Manager advertised by you in The Hindu of 27 February, 2010. Or I request you to consider favourably my qualifications for the position of Legal Adviser in your firm advertised in The Indian Express dated Question opening- Begin with an attention-seeking question that targets the organisations problem, need or goal and describe how you can help in fulfilling it. News opening- Mention some organizational achievement, goal, etc. which was made public and express your desire to work for the organization because of it and for it. Personalized opening- Mention your relevant interests or previous experiences or your present position or profile and start discussing why you are eager to work with the organization. The Middle Paragraph It gives specific examples of why you are perfect for the job. With an effective introductory paragraph, half the work is done as you will have already succeeded in exciting the employers interest. The next step is to show how you are the one that he is looking for. For this, you should explain in detail the important points that you mentioned in the opening paragraph. Give evidence in support of your claims of ability. Avoid exaggerating. Take care not to repeat the points already mentioned in the opening paragraph or the resume. Include relevant details that could not be accommodated in the resume. The middle paragraph/s of the application letter should focus mainly on convincing the reader that you are the best choice for the post advertised. You can do this not by listing the academic degrees that you have earned but by highlighting how your education has equipped you for the work that you seek. Show how you are updated not only about your area of specialization but are also aware of the latest in the other allied areas. If you have handled different job profiles while working part-time, explain what you have learnt from it and how it has made you capable at adapting to different work environments. Also, mention the various job-related activities, interests and qualities that you possess. Sum up by referring the reader to the enclosed resume for further details. The Closing/Concluding Paragraph In the last paragraph, make a subtle suggestion to your prospective employer to act i.e. to grant you an interview. Do not demand it. Do not use sloppy words to gain the readers sympathy. Avoid closing lines like- Given an opportunity to serve in your esteemed company, I assure you the best of my servicesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Please be kind enough to give me an opportunity to serve in your reputed institutionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Be simple and direct in asking for an interview. Heres how you can do it effectively- I hope to hear from you soon. I will be glad/grateful if my application for the said post is considered favourably. I hope that my qualifications would merit your consideration. Looking forward to a favourable response. May I look forward to an interview with you at your convenience? Close the letter by stating your phone number and specify the best time to reach you. You may also include your email address on which you may be contacted. The Complimentary Close and the Signature Line The complimentary close is placed two spaces below the last line of the body of the letter. Some of the most commonly used complimentary closes include Thank you, Yours faithfully, Sincerely, Best regards, Respectfully, Best wishes, Yours truly, Warm regards, Sincerely yours, With many thanks, etc. The complimentary close begins with a capital letter and ends with a comma. Leave four spaces between the complimentary close and the Signature Line (i.e. the writers name) for a signature. The writers title or designation should be typed directly below the name. The signature should ideally be in blue or black ink. Example: Yours sincerely, (Sign here) Ramakanta Das Managing Director Saint Gobain Industries Hyderabad Enclosures List the number and nature of the documents that you are sending along with the letter of application. If the list is too long, attach a separate sheet. Leave two or three spaces after the signature line and write- Encl. See list attached.

Hittite’s Self-Image Characterized by Grandeur :: Hittite Culture Cultural History Essays

Hittite’s Self-Image Characterized by Grandeur The Hittite empire, like many others of the Bronze Age, arose at a time when new tactics and implements for fighting were being developed in abundance. Like many other empires of that time, the Hittites recognized the importance of protecting their lands and acquiring new ones. As the size and influence of the Hittite empire grew, it sometimes formed peaceful agreements with foreign lands. These agreements, however, primarily served their own interests. Evidence of the behavior of the Hittites found in primary documents reveals that they treated civilizations other than their own as their inferiors. Religion was central to the Hittite’s culture and they considered their devotion to it to be one of their primary strengths. The upkeep of Hittite religious institutions and their functionaries was a primary obligation of the commander of the Hittite border guards. A document containing instructions for that commander explains these responsibilities: â€Å"In the town through which the commander [passes]†¦ he shall attend to the necessary provisions for town-elders, priests, ‘anointed’ (and) mothers-of-god.† (par. 1) It was important to the Hittite king (also called the Sun) that all cities in the empire contain adequate sites for worship of the Hittite gods. This suggests that they believed paying tribute to the gods ensured them some sort of security or protection. In that same document it was stated, â€Å"The commander of the border guards shall make an inventory of the god’s utensils and send it before the Sun.† (par. 3) ‘Utensils’ probably refers to the possessions of the gods, perhaps including their temples, servants, and any commodities held in their name. A list of them was most likely held by the king so that what the Hittites had given to their gods was on record. The magnitude of religion in this civilization and the closeness of it to the military reveal that the favor of and protection from its gods gave its people a perceived power and authority that other civilizations lacked. Religion was also directly connected to imperial Hittite rule through the king. In a treaty between Mursilis, Sun of the Hittites, and Duppi-Tessub, king of Amurru, the preamble mentions that Mursilis was the â€Å"favorite of the Storm-god.

Old Story Time

The story Emma based from the book â€Å"A World of Prose† and published by the author Carolyn Cole is about a woman named Emma who is a very beautiful lady of leisure, she has stepped down from an active social life after giving birth to Dorian in order to spend more time with her daughter Maria. Her husband Jack is a notorious cheater and he is not faithful to Emma. The setting of the story occurs in three places the York Residence, an unknown mall and at the old train station where the death of Emma took place.In the first setting of the story which takes place at the York Residence shows the two friends Maria and Dorian doing activities such as chatting about Dory’s Mother Emma, playing adult games and the support of each other. The moods and the themes displayed in that setting of the story is called Innocence which is epitomized by Dorian, the story is told from her perspective therefore we get a view of the innocence behind her misunderstanding of adult conversat ions and situations.Friendship which is shown in the friendship between Dorian and Maria, which is characterized by playing adult games. In the second setting which takes place at the unnamed mall shows Dory, Maria Mrs Robinson and Emma going to the mall to buy school cloths for Dorian because the summer was ending, while there the two friends Dory and Maria played games in the arcade while Mrs Robinson and Emma was having close conversations about sending both Maria and Dorian to a boarding school and about Emma having another child but Emma denied her because her husband Jack was not ready for Dory.While they were chatting, Dory and Maria wanted to go ice skating at the old train station and Emma decides to send them, the girls got their skates Emma hugged Maria before they left. The moods and themes displayed in that setting is called Love and family Relationship, there are two types of families in the short story, the nuclear and the single family. Dorian’s family is the nuclear family, consisting of mother, father and child. Maria’s family is the single family with her single mother Mrs Robinson.In the third or last setting which takes place at the old station shows Dory and Maria skating with the other kids at the old train station when the two girls caught a glimpse of the lady sitting on the steps wearing a black dress and long whit beads Maria pulled Dorian behind an old boxcar and Dory and Maria realises that it was her when they see their father with her they quickly assume that she was the lady at the train station. Maria belittles Dory quit a lot, and Dory indeed believes Maria to know and understand everything.But the game was over when Emma and Mrs Robinson arrive on the train and Emma experiences the mysterious lady with her husband she sadly sobs as she runs feeling cheated by own husband, she ran waiting to cross Georgia Avenue her husband grabbed her by her arm. She snatched away from him and ran into the street where an oncomi ng vehicle overruns her. The moods and themes displayed in that setting is called Innocence which is from Dory the story is told from her perspective therefore we get a view of the innocence behind her misunderstanding of adult conversations.

International Business Case Study Essay

The first question: how has the globalization of market benefited IKEA? The globalization of market refers to the merging of historically distinct and separate national markets into one huge global marketplace. Falling barriers to cross-border trade have more easier to sell internationally, so it is easier for IKEA to grow into a global cult brand with 230 stores in 33countries and have 5 suppliers of the frames in Europe, plus 3 in the United States and two in China. Because a fewer barriers to cross-border trade. IKEA can easily to open a store in other countries. the second question: how has the globalization of production benefited IKEA? The globalization of production refers to sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of productions, IKEA did a good job, in order to reduce the cost of cotton slipcovers, IKEA has concentrated production in four core suppliers in China. The resulting efficiencies from these global sourcing decisions enabled IKEA to reduce the price of the Klippen by some 40 present between 1995 and2005, because in China we have cheaper labour and lower price of source, it will reduce the cost of production in IKEA, thereby allow IKEA to compete more effectively. What does the IKEA story teach you about the limits of treating the entire world as single integrated global marketplace? In my opinion, every country is unique and has different cultures. If the strategies to provide low price of product offer a company must identify what and which factor that can bring the lowest cost in term of labour, transportation, materials and so on. IKEA first discovered in the early1990s. The company found that its European-style offerings. However, it didn’t always resonatewith American consumers. Because of this reason, IKEA has redesigned its US offerings appeal to American consumers, which has resulted in stronger sales. It is obvious that tastes and preference play an important role in the globalization market. Also, since not everyone had a car, IKEA ensured that their stores were located near public transport.

An Overview of the Chinese Communist Party

An Overview of the Chinese Communist Party Fewer than 6-percent of the Chinese population are members of China’s Communist Party, yet it is the most powerful political party in the world. How Was the Communist Party of China Founded? The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began as an informal study group that met in Shanghai starting in 1921. The first Party Congress was held in Shanghai in July 1921. Some 57 members, including Mao Zedong, attended the meeting. Early Influences The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in the early 1920s by intellectuals who were influenced by the Western ideas of anarchism and Marxism. They were inspired by the 1918 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and by the May Fourth Movement, which swept across China at the end of World War I. At the time of the CCP’s founding, China was a divided, backward country ruled by various local warlords and burdened by unequal treaties which gave foreign powers special economic and territorial privileges in China. Looking to the USSR as an example, the intellectuals who founded the CCP believed that Marxist revolution was the best path to strengthen and modernize China. The Early CCP Was a Soviet-Style Party The CCP’s early leaders received funding and guidance from Soviet advisors and many went to the Soviet Union for education and training. The early CCP was a Soviet-style Party led by intellectuals and urban workers who advocated orthodox Marxist-Leninist thought. In 1922, the CCP joined the larger and more powerful revolutionary party, the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT), to form the First United Front (1922-27). Under the First United Front, the CCP was absorbed into the KMT. Its members worked within the KMT to organize urban workers and farmers to support the KMT army’s Northern Expedition (1926-27). The Northern Expedition During the Northern Expedition, which succeeded in defeating the warlords and unifying the country, the KMT split and its leader Chiang Kai-shek led an anti-Communist purge in which thousands of CCP members and supporters were killed. After the KMT established the new Republic of China (ROC) government in Nanjing, it continued its crackdown on the CCP. After the break-up of the First United Front in 1927, the CCP and its supporters fled from the cities to the countryside, where the Party established semi-autonomous â€Å"Soviet base areas,† which they called the Chinese Soviet Republic (1927-1937). In the countryside, the CCP organized its own military force, the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army. The CCPs headquarters moved from Shanghai to the rural Jiangxi Soviet base area, which was led by the peasant revolutionary Zhu De and Mao Zedong. The Long March The KMT-led central government launched a series of military campaigns against the CCP-controlled base areas, forcing the CCP to undertake the Long March (1934-35), a several-thousand-mile military retreat that ended in the rural village of Yenan in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, Soviet advisors lost influence over the CCP and Mao Zedong took over control of the Party from Soviet-trained revolutionaries. Based in Yenan from 1936-1949, the CCP changed from an orthodox Soviet-style party based in the cities and led by intellectuals and urban workers to a rural-based Maoist revolutionary party composed primarily of peasants and soldiers. The CCP gained the support of many rural peasants by carrying out land reform which redistributed land from landlords to peasants. The Second United Front Following Japan’s invasion of China, the CCP formed a Second United Front (1937-1945) with the ruling KMT to fight the Japanese. During this period, CCP-controlled areas remained relatively autonomous from the central government. Red Army units waged a guerilla war against Japanese forces in the countryside, and the CCP took advantage of the central government’s preoccupation with fighting Japan to expand the CCP’s power and influence. During the Second United Front, CCP membership increased from 40,000 to 1.2 million and the size of the Red Army surged from 30,000 to nearly one million. When Japan surrendered in 1945, Soviet forces that accepted the surrender of Japanese troops in Northeast China turned over large quantities of arms and ammunition to the CCP. Civil war resumed in 1946 between the CCP and KMT. In 1949, the CCP’s Red Army defeated the military forces of the central government in Nanjing, and the KMT-led ROC government fled to Taiwan. On October 10, 1949, Mao Zedong declared the founding of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. A One-Party State   Although there are other political parties in China, including eight small democratic parties, China is a one-party state and the Communist Party maintains a monopoly on power. The other political parties are under the leadership of the Communist Party and serve in advisory roles. A Party Congress Every Five Years A Party Congress, in which the Central Committee is elected, is held every five years. Over 2,000 delegates attend the Party Congress. The Central Committee’s 204 members elect the 25-member Politburo of the Communist Party, which in turn elects a nine-member Politburo Standing Committee. There were 57 Party members when the first Party Congress was held in 1921. There were 73 million Party members at the 17th Party Congress that was held in 2007. The Party’s Leadership Is Marked by Generations The Party’s leadership is marked by generations, starting with the first generation who led the Communist Party to power in 1949. The second generation was led by Deng Xiaoping, China’s last revolutionary-era leader. During the third generation, led by  Jiang Zemin  and  Zhu Rongji, the CCP deemphasized supreme leadership by one individual and transitioned  to a more group-based decision-making process among a small handful of leaders on the  Standing Committee of the Politburo. The Current Leadership The fourth generation was  led by  Hu Jintao  and  Wen Jiabao. The fifth generation, made up of well-connected Communist Youth League members and the children of high-ranking officials, called ‘Princelings,’ took over in 2012. Power in China is based on a pyramid scheme with supreme power at the top. The Standing Committee of the Politburo holds supreme power. The Committee is responsible for maintaining the Party’s control of the state and military. Its members achieve this by holding the highest positions in the State Council, which oversees the government, the National People’s Congress- China’s rubber-stamp legislature, and the Central Military Commission, which runs the armed forces. The base of the Communist Party includes provincial-level, county-level, and township-level People’s Congresses and Party Committees. Fewer than 6-percent of Chinese are members, yet it is the most powerful political party in the world.

Free Essays on Cleopatra VII And The Ptolemaic Dynasty

Cleopatra VII and the Ptolemaic Dynasty Alexandria conquered the world for over nine hundred years politically, culturally, and economically. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) Alexandria’s location on the Mediterranean coast aided in its success. It was a bridge between Europe and Africa and was far away from the invasions of Barbarians. Alexandria was the new capital of Egypt, it replaced Memphis, and the Ptolemaic dynasty came into rule. When the Greeks came into Egypt, many changes occurred. People and goods were able to move over the Nile Valley and the Delta because of new systems of roads and canals. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) There was better military security and cultural and social beliefs spread rapidly. Alexander took over Egypt and made it part of the Greek Empire. Then he named Alexandria after himself. He died and his Empire was divvied up between his generals. Ptolemy was one of them and took Alexandria as his capital. The Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt for the next two and half centuries. Wine producing grapes and cotton were grown and foreign trade took place with luxury goods. Ptolemy absorbed Egypt’s religion with their own and built temples for the gods that they worshipped. Ptolemy’s rule was successful partly because he chose to adopt Egyptian culture. There was a golden age for Alexandria and for Egypt. Scholars and artists from all over the world were invited by Ptolemy to aid in the learning culture of Alexandria. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) A library was built to preserve the Greek culture because Ptolemy thought that their culture was superior. The Library contained almost fifty thousand books, which was amazing at that point in time. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) During Julius Caesar’s war against Pompey, parts of the Library may have been destroyed, but no one knows what really happened to it. It could have been only a small portion that had been damag... Free Essays on Cleopatra VII And The Ptolemaic Dynasty Free Essays on Cleopatra VII And The Ptolemaic Dynasty Cleopatra VII and the Ptolemaic Dynasty Alexandria conquered the world for over nine hundred years politically, culturally, and economically. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) Alexandria’s location on the Mediterranean coast aided in its success. It was a bridge between Europe and Africa and was far away from the invasions of Barbarians. Alexandria was the new capital of Egypt, it replaced Memphis, and the Ptolemaic dynasty came into rule. When the Greeks came into Egypt, many changes occurred. People and goods were able to move over the Nile Valley and the Delta because of new systems of roads and canals. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) There was better military security and cultural and social beliefs spread rapidly. Alexander took over Egypt and made it part of the Greek Empire. Then he named Alexandria after himself. He died and his Empire was divvied up between his generals. Ptolemy was one of them and took Alexandria as his capital. The Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt for the next two and half centuries. Wine producing grapes and cotton were grown and foreign trade took place with luxury goods. Ptolemy absorbed Egypt’s religion with their own and built temples for the gods that they worshipped. Ptolemy’s rule was successful partly because he chose to adopt Egyptian culture. There was a golden age for Alexandria and for Egypt. Scholars and artists from all over the world were invited by Ptolemy to aid in the learning culture of Alexandria. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) A library was built to preserve the Greek culture because Ptolemy thought that their culture was superior. The Library contained almost fifty thousand books, which was amazing at that point in time. (http:/touregypt.net/alexhis1.htm) During Julius Caesar’s war against Pompey, parts of the Library may have been destroyed, but no one knows what really happened to it. It could have been only a small portion that had been damag...

A Review Of Successful JIT Implementations Information Technology Essay

A Review Of Successful JIT Implementations Information Technology Essay Globalization has led to an enormous increase in competition in all segments. Manufacturing, Service, Banking etc. nobody is protected by it. So to gain an edge over your competitors companies are highly focused on improving their processes and systems to reduce the throughput time which subsequently leads to cost-savings. As Just-In-Time is a lean management principle, it definitely results in overall cost reduction. But even after the underlying benefits of implementing a methodology like JIT, there is still a certain amount of reluctance to adopt this philosophy due to various reasons like lack of understanding of the process, benefits associated with implementation, apprehensions to change from traditional methods of production to modern methods, adopting new technologies, capital expenditure and numerous other factors. Such events hamper the growth of the industries and the growth of the nation as well. What the firms fail to understand is that this is an adopted practice and m ay not produce the exact expected results. Moreover, it takes time to implement JIT because it demands an entire process reform. Even Toyota (inventor of JIT), took more than 20 years to get to the lean system, which the looks upto. With not quickly getting the results and incurring of some initial costs, firms often refrain from getting into the trial phase. The study highlights the major issues Supply Chain faces in India which makes the lean practices difficult and desired output are not obtained. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The study highlights a certain unfairness of the much idealized JIT philosophy if adopted blindly. Every concept behaves in a certain pattern in different scenarios. The main significance of the study is to find out the methods of the Risk Management in Supply Chain for smooth adoption and working of Lean management thus taking a leap ahead towards the successful implementation of JIT. The recommendations mentioned in the end are in context to the stories of Indian Firms but can be applied globally as India has made a mark on the International Globe. The study also highlights methods to overcome these failures related to implementation of JIT in India. REVIEW OF LITERATURE JUST IN TIME It is a manufacturing system with a goal to optimize processes and procedures by continuously pursuing waste reduction. The entire process was developed by Taiichi Ohno after the Second World War in competition to the American Automobile Industry. But the demand being less, the Japanese could not afford to order by EOQ & stock an inventory. So to keep the waste and operational cost to a minimum, Taiichi came up with the concept of Just-In-Time (JIT) where any item moves the production system on need. Systems were non-automated, there was no over-production and the time spent in waiting for parts and processing of order was now minimized. The inventories levels were reduced and so were the waste. When a car was selling at a particular selling price such that PRO FIT = (SELLING PRICE – COST) then cost leveling was the only option to raise profit levels. Also JIT got with itself cellular manufacturing when machines were clustered so that items move smoothly in the process. The workers were now trained to be multi-skilled to be able to work on more than one machine.

Group dynamics working in teams (apply Belbins Theory) Essay

Group dynamics working in teams (apply Belbins Theory) - Essay Example s are effectively performed at the Community Stroke Team such that both Nursing Occupational Therapist and Physiotherapist play various different roles. Nursing Occupational Therapists play the roles of resource investigator, coordinator and monitor-evaluator. Being a resource investigator, he/she seeks out the issues which are causing problems to the patients and he/she searches for resources as how to help out and treat those patients. Being a coordinator, he/she coordinates with other team member in providing the appropriate treatment to the patients. As a monitor-evaluator, he/she keeps monitoring the condition of the patients as well as evaluating the performance of other team members. According to Charles Handy’s theory of organizational culture, the culture of Community Stroke Team comes under the role culture. In this culture, the nature of jobs of the team members is not so dynamic and the effectiveness of the performance of the overall team lies on the efforts of every individual working under this team. NHS Leeds Community Healthcare, 2012. Community Stroke Team. [online] Available at: [Accessed 19 February

Brave Software Companys Main Rivals Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Brave Software Companys Main Rivals - Assignment Example Also, most of these firms were founded long before Brave Software Company came into being. Therefore, their brands are better positioned in the market than Brave Software Company’s brands. Also, most of the Brave Software Company’s competitors have a bigger workforce than that of the Brave Software Company. Nevertheless, Brave Software Company’s competitors have weaknesses too. Most of these firms have been perceived as being less ‘technologically conscious’. Also, these competitors charge a relatively higher price on the software-based products and rely more on the traditional methods of advertising to reach out to their customers in the market. This is a plan aimed at reaching out to a particular segment of the market by developing a unique product that is more appealing to the customers (Simons, 2000). Different firms may, therefore, produce a similar item but they cannot sell exactly the same product in the market. Each of these firms has to package, price and even quantify the product in such a way that it looks different from the similar products on the market. In this case, Brave Software Company has embarked on a low-price strategy. Following the fact that most of the other companies in the industry charge a relatively high price on the software-based products, Brave Software Company has embarked on producing similar products at relatively lower prices. Further, these products have been developed in a way that they target a specific market and not the entire market. The company has also capitalized on specific advertising mechanisms to reach out to the specific group of customers in the market. Further, the company ha s a strong brand positioning statement. Having been established in the year 2010, Brave Software Company has worked towards providing the best software solutions to its respective customers. The company also aspires to grow beyond the geographical borders of the international market.

Knowledge and Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Knowledge and Skills - Essay Example This 'Knowledge and Skills Framework' is designed in the United Kingdom, to understand, and sustain personal and career development. It helps to identify the skills and knowledge individuals should apply to their jobs so that they are provided with equal opportunities of progress throughout their careers. 1. I have served many non profit and for-profit organizations over the past years of my life. These include fulfilling the duties of an administrator, director, operations manager and as a full time social worker at many organizations. This kind of massive exposure to the real world problems related to the management of these associations has led to the development of my psychosocial abilities and I have fully utilized these abilities to the best of my capabilities. I have served as a full time social worker at the Fresenius Medical Care formerly known as Renal Care Group, Inc, Wynnewood. This facility provides dialysis treatments to adults in 3 countries simultaneously. At the DaVita Dialysis also provides dialysis treatments to adults and Delware County and South Philadelphia area. Also, I have demonstrated my skills as a Director at 'Tressler Lutheran Services, West Chester' which provides clinical therapy to adolescents and families in the area. From 1995 to 1996, I was the 'Pro gram Director' to a foster child care and adoption services facility called 'Children's Choice', in Philadelphia. I also have served as a 'Family Preservation Case Manager' at 'Family and Community Services of Delaware County'. A. During my experience as a social worker at Fresenius Medical Care, I managed a caseload of 160-180 patients. This management was in regard to psychosocial issues, insurance coverage and transportation concerns. At DaVita Dialysis facility, where I handled the case load of 140 Upland and 75 Upper Philadelphia from May 2002 to November 2002, similar challenges were faced. The psychosocial needs of the patients admitted in these facilities were tremendous. They ranged from information about their therapies to possible side effects, stress, depression and other mental and emotional conditions. Patients suffering from dialysis undergo extensive treatments and also seek assistance in the normal day routines they can't perform independently. All these issues were successfully taken care of. The psychodynamic theory was greatly applied in these situations where the patient-doctor emotional relationships were encouraged. Successful documentation of psychosocial assessment and needs was do ne at both the facilities, keeping in mind the Medicare guidelines and Federal regulations. Patients were made comfortable with their treatments, by thoroughly informing them about the medical procedures. B. While working at the Children's Choice, my range and scope of experience increased as I was subjected to handle special need groups. These groups call for special attention psychosocially and are to be handled with care and devotion. The application of psychosocial theory has been the basis of my efforts in all these situations. Special attention was given to offer increased level of care both physical and emotional. Also, it was indemnified that the Child Welfare Regulations were being effective followed as required by the Department of Human

Enterprise progec Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Enterprise progec - Essay Example It also needs rigorous digital marketing campaign as well. We are a team of professional marketers skilled in online marketing (social media management, web development / enhancement and search engine optimisation). We will manage the task of online marketing of Consult2C by attracting attention of maximum potential customers through digital channels of communication. The structure of website will be altered and made more attractive whereas images, titles and tags will be researched and added to the website to optimise visit of potential clients via net traffic which will be tracked through rate of click to conversion. More focused marketing message will be delivered through the website as currently targeted organisations / clients are not mentioned on the web and even there is no vision or mission statement available. The algorithm of website will be redefined in order to rank it top in search engine results. Moreover the website will be advertised on the search engines and pay per click websites. Specific geographic markets are also easily targeted by search engine advertisement so non-targeted clients may be avoided. Few unique articles about the need of training for repute management, communication in organisation and employees development will be published in online article directories like Wikipedia, ehow.com, etc which will help to exalt online existence of services provided by the company. This is the most crucial part of the plan that is to be executed right after web optimisation and article publishing so that there is some foundation of online presence of the company. The pages will be designed and managed on Facebook, Twitter and Linkedin and certain organisations and individuals will be linked and communicated two-way to offer tailored services. Those pages will be updated on daily basis with service offering and press releases and more number of targeted clients will be addressed. This will also help to develop a

Canadian Electoral System Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Canadian Electoral System - Term Paper Example Even then, they were expected to have certain qualifications. Elections, back then, were held at different times of the year. Unlike now, secret ballot was not a system that was used by the Canadians. However, as times moved on, the right for every adult man and woman to vote was given. As this happened, the people became less tolerant of the previous system. They advocated for reforms in the electoral system. This is so that the process of voting in political institutions in the land could be free, and fair. These reforms became paramount so that the system could find support from the public, thus acquiring legitimacy. This paper will review some of the ways in which the electoral system in Canada operates, and the nature of their system. The extraordinary complexity of the electoral system requires that it should be fine- tuned to suit the immediate environment at all times. Canada’s federal nature shows of the country’s electoral law as much as it does the political life that exists in the country (Dyck 2011, 45).2 This is so that every individual will get to understand their fundamental right to vote, and elect into office their preferred choice of authority. The different systems present in Canada allow the people to vote in candidates in their own provinces. However, for the federal parliament, there exists only one electoral system. This ensures that there is uniformity during the general election process. The Canada Elections Act contains all the election laws that are present in Canada. The publishing of such information ensures that everyone gets to understand the laws that govern elections. The consequences of committing an election offense can also be found there. There are other documents that have this kind of information displayed to the people (Farrell 2006, 62).3 These include; Electoral Boundaries Readjustment Act, the Criminal Code, the Income Tax Act among others. Although laws in Canada continue to be passed by politicians, th e electoral system is governed by a neutral party. It consists of an unbiased, independent group of individuals. This is the most recent development that the Canadian electoral system has undergone since the inception of law. As adult men and women were allowed to vote, it became imperative that the organizational procedure be removed from political control. The neutral party was not expected to be close to the government (Farrell 2006, 67).4 These were the expectations of the public with the introduction of neutral parties to run the organizational procedures. Laws must keep on changing and evolving to accommodate the current trends that need to be met. Also, the public should be able to see the changes, and the positive effect they may have on them. In 1920, the Dominion Elections Act, advocated for the creation of a position in the election system. This position was for the Chief Electoral Officer. The position entailed the party’s involvement to be the main supervisor of the elections. Also, they were supposed to map out the general direction of the elections (Farrell 2006, 73).5 The office, which is also known as Elections Canada, was mandated to enforce fairness and impartiality when it came to the elections. In Canada, the general elections for federal government are held after four years. However, in the case where there is a minority government, the elections can be called at any time. A minority governmen

Knowledge and Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Knowledge and Skills - Essay Example This 'Knowledge and Skills Framework' is designed in the United Kingdom, to understand, and sustain personal and career development. It helps to identify the skills and knowledge individuals should apply to their jobs so that they are provided with equal opportunities of progress throughout their careers. 1. I have served many non profit and for-profit organizations over the past years of my life. These include fulfilling the duties of an administrator, director, operations manager and as a full time social worker at many organizations. This kind of massive exposure to the real world problems related to the management of these associations has led to the development of my psychosocial abilities and I have fully utilized these abilities to the best of my capabilities. I have served as a full time social worker at the Fresenius Medical Care formerly known as Renal Care Group, Inc, Wynnewood. This facility provides dialysis treatments to adults in 3 countries simultaneously. At the DaVita Dialysis also provides dialysis treatments to adults and Delware County and South Philadelphia area. Also, I have demonstrated my skills as a Director at 'Tressler Lutheran Services, West Chester' which provides clinical therapy to adolescents and families in the area. From 1995 to 1996, I was the 'Pro gram Director' to a foster child care and adoption services facility called 'Children's Choice', in Philadelphia. I also have served as a 'Family Preservation Case Manager' at 'Family and Community Services of Delaware County'. A. During my experience as a social worker at Fresenius Medical Care, I managed a caseload of 160-180 patients. This management was in regard to psychosocial issues, insurance coverage and transportation concerns. At DaVita Dialysis facility, where I handled the case load of 140 Upland and 75 Upper Philadelphia from May 2002 to November 2002, similar challenges were faced. The psychosocial needs of the patients admitted in these facilities were tremendous. They ranged from information about their therapies to possible side effects, stress, depression and other mental and emotional conditions. Patients suffering from dialysis undergo extensive treatments and also seek assistance in the normal day routines they can't perform independently. All these issues were successfully taken care of. The psychodynamic theory was greatly applied in these situations where the patient-doctor emotional relationships were encouraged. Successful documentation of psychosocial assessment and needs was do ne at both the facilities, keeping in mind the Medicare guidelines and Federal regulations. Patients were made comfortable with their treatments, by thoroughly informing them about the medical procedures. B. While working at the Children's Choice, my range and scope of experience increased as I was subjected to handle special need groups. These groups call for special attention psychosocially and are to be handled with care and devotion. The application of psychosocial theory has been the basis of my efforts in all these situations. Special attention was given to offer increased level of care both physical and emotional. Also, it was indemnified that the Child Welfare Regulations were being effective followed as required by the Department of Human

Canadian Electoral System Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Canadian Electoral System - Term Paper Example Even then, they were expected to have certain qualifications. Elections, back then, were held at different times of the year. Unlike now, secret ballot was not a system that was used by the Canadians. However, as times moved on, the right for every adult man and woman to vote was given. As this happened, the people became less tolerant of the previous system. They advocated for reforms in the electoral system. This is so that the process of voting in political institutions in the land could be free, and fair. These reforms became paramount so that the system could find support from the public, thus acquiring legitimacy. This paper will review some of the ways in which the electoral system in Canada operates, and the nature of their system. The extraordinary complexity of the electoral system requires that it should be fine- tuned to suit the immediate environment at all times. Canada’s federal nature shows of the country’s electoral law as much as it does the political life that exists in the country (Dyck 2011, 45).2 This is so that every individual will get to understand their fundamental right to vote, and elect into office their preferred choice of authority. The different systems present in Canada allow the people to vote in candidates in their own provinces. However, for the federal parliament, there exists only one electoral system. This ensures that there is uniformity during the general election process. The Canada Elections Act contains all the election laws that are present in Canada. The publishing of such information ensures that everyone gets to understand the laws that govern elections. The consequences of committing an election offense can also be found there. There are other documents that have this kind of information displayed to the people (Farrell 2006, 62).3 These include; Electoral Boundaries Readjustment Act, the Criminal Code, the Income Tax Act among others. Although laws in Canada continue to be passed by politicians, th e electoral system is governed by a neutral party. It consists of an unbiased, independent group of individuals. This is the most recent development that the Canadian electoral system has undergone since the inception of law. As adult men and women were allowed to vote, it became imperative that the organizational procedure be removed from political control. The neutral party was not expected to be close to the government (Farrell 2006, 67).4 These were the expectations of the public with the introduction of neutral parties to run the organizational procedures. Laws must keep on changing and evolving to accommodate the current trends that need to be met. Also, the public should be able to see the changes, and the positive effect they may have on them. In 1920, the Dominion Elections Act, advocated for the creation of a position in the election system. This position was for the Chief Electoral Officer. The position entailed the party’s involvement to be the main supervisor of the elections. Also, they were supposed to map out the general direction of the elections (Farrell 2006, 73).5 The office, which is also known as Elections Canada, was mandated to enforce fairness and impartiality when it came to the elections. In Canada, the general elections for federal government are held after four years. However, in the case where there is a minority government, the elections can be called at any time. A minority governmen

How to Improve Our Government Essay Example for Free

How to Improve Our Government Essay People every day make mistakes, and find flaws in their everyday tasks. No one person in this country can consider his, or herself, perfect. Knowledgeable people do exist in this world though, and our government strives to find and elect these representatives. These representatives then make decisions that affect our country in ways some might find positive, though others perceive as negative. Representatives could make decisions that would only impact our government in a negative way. Our government has its flaws, along with the people running it. I can think of several ways to help to improve the government and its efficiency. A decrease in government funding for our National Defense would increase funding in other important areas. People across our nation need jobs, and are struggling to find a source of income. If we used some of the funding that we attribute to our Nation Defense, then this money might benefit in the use of creating new jobs and opportunities for people. Not only would we have money to provide jobs, but this funding could be used to help create and search for new information in the field of Cancer Research. The government funds provide people that lack occupations and have no source of income, with a reliable way of obtaining money for themselves to provide for his or her, and/or his or her family. These welfare recipients may draw unemployment after applying and meeting the requirements need to obtain this welfare money. These requirements may not be strict enough, which would lead to the allowance of the unemployed to gather money while being lazy in the process. Due to the lack of work ethic found in people, drug use may attribute to this laziness. A requirement may need to be added in order for the recipients to pass a drug test (a test for multiple drugs) in order to draw unemployment, in return saving the wasted money the government provides to the unworthy. The government could invest much of their funding in renewable energy sources. The post installation outcome of these windmills, energy providing dams, etc. would help save money later on in the future. With these funds being provided to help â€Å"Go Green†, the earth itself would take a drastic increase in cleanliness. The government then might avoid conflicts  with foreign nations in the search for the fossil fuels, of which we currently use as energy. Doing this might then allow us to pull our troops out of these foreign nations, saving lives and money provided for the troops. The government has a reliable system that has gotten our country out of some troubled times, and may be one of the most united governments the world has seen. As previously stated though, nothing and no single person is perfect. With these little changes in the way the government goes about, it may impact funding, our unity, and occupations for the people of the United States, allowing people to live and prosper, with freedom and peace throughout.

Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools

Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools This project addresses the problems that are currently being encountered with regard to the delivery of citizenship and PHSE within UK schools. To give emergent themes context – an historical review of their academic treatment is presented. This is broadened by considering the United States delivery of these subjects to determine whether the UK can learn anything from the American experience. Documentary analysis and interview schedules are the research methods used to analyse secondary sources and generate primary data. A number of conclusions are drawn – namely these subjects must be linked to current issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, global citizenship etc) of the day – to ensure that their content and delivery remain relevant to the needs of young people. Recommendations for a more flexible approach regarding the delivery and assessment of these subjects are made at the end of the study. 1.1 What Does â€Å"Citizenship† Mean? Before it is possible to critically review and evaluate th eeffectiveness of the learning and teaching methods that are used to deliver citizenship and PHSE, it is necessary to begin by analysing their rationale and curricular content. In other words what are these subjects about and what are the benefits that pupils gain by studying them? Answering this question will provide a framework within which it can be determined whethercurrent academic practices are satisfying the aims and objectives ofthese subjects. Citizenship is a concept that can have a myriad of meanings andinterpretations. There is no universally agreed definition. Models of citizenship vary from country to country. The concept is continuously contested by political parties, academics and pressure groups. Despite the many interpretations of the concept that exist, all notions of citizenship imply to a greater or lesser degree, membership of apolitical community that is internally defined by rights, duties, participation and identity. The term â€Å"Active Citizenship† is widely used, but again there is no single accepted definition. The phrase is open to interpretation. From an educational perspective when there is no universally accepteddefinition of a concept, it makes it extremely difficult to transform such a subject into a meaningful learning experience for young people. In other words there are no â€Å"hard and fast† rules which can be appliedby teachers. When a concept has a clear and universally accepteddefinition, it provides the means by which to breakdown the subject into manageable chunks of learning. Thus students become skilled and knowledgeable when applying each component to a given set of circumstances. For example, in Business Studies, if you wish to measure the financialperformance of a company, it is possible to apply a number ofuniversally accepted accounting ratios. This forms a set ofâ€Å"standards†, which are quantifiable and which can be applied in a constant manner to a variety of different situations over a period of time. When it is possible to apply clearly defined and universally accepted standards to a subject or a concept – it becomes relativelyeasy to teach and learn. When a student understands how each component of a subject works, it isthen possible to interlink these areas and increase the complexity oflearning activities. Thus over time the student will master each stage(i.e. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,evaluation) of the cognitive learning domain (Source:www.businessballs.com, Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains).Students will have a holistic view of the subject content and willunderstand how the constituent components interlink. Given that citizenship does not have a universally accepted definition; is it possible to develop a set of â€Å"standards†, which can be constantly applied? Citizenship poses serious problems for educationalists interms of its definition and delivery as a subject to young people throughout the UK. What are the statutory requirements for teaching citizenship? It is a statutory subject at key stages 3 and 4. Apartfrom the absence of an eight-level scale of achievement, it is treatedexactly the same as other foundation subjects in the National Curriculum. Schools are required to establish high standards for citizenship that are comparable with standards in other subjects (Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). 1.2 What Are The Similarities Between Citizenship And PHSE? Both subjects are similar in their emphasis on values and attitudes,and in their concern to empower young people to act effectively andwith self-confidence. They are also similar in some of the themes they explore; such drug abuse and equal opportunities – and their emphasison active learning techniques like role play and discussion. What distinguishes the two concepts are their focus and content. PHSE focuses on personal and inter-personal decision making, whilecitizenship education deals with â€Å"public policy†. PHSE is concernedwith students’ choices as private individuals, the other with their rights as citizens. For example, a typical PSHE lesson on smoking deals withlegal rights and responsibilities, whereas a citizenship lesson focuseson the cost to society – exploring issues such as legislation onsmoking in public places or tobacco advertising. Thus citizenship canbe viewed as the global or societal perspective on key issues e.g.smoking etc. PHSE, on the other hand, concentrates on the needs, expectations and responsibilities of the individual. 1.3 Why Is It Necessary To Investigate The Teaching And Learning Methods Of Citizenship and PSHE? In 2004 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) published areport (PSHE 2002/3 annual report on curriculum and assessment, QCA,March 2004) on the delivery of PSHE within schools in England. In thesummary of key findings it was noted that in some schools, there wasconfusion about what the differences and similarities between PSHE andcitizenship. Also even when schools had allocated a significant amount of curriculum time to the delivery of their PSHE programmes, it was rare for the assessment of pupils’ progress and achievement to take place. Ever since the National Curriculum was launched in 1988 there have been major concerns over the time available to deliver all of the core subjects (e.g. English, Mathematics etc). The introduction of new subjects (i.e. Citizenship in September 2002) places an even greater pressure on school timetables, teaching staff and resources. The major problems may be summarised as follows: a. As explained in section 1.1 there is no universally accepted definition of citizenship. b. There is confusion over the similarities and differences between citizenship and PSHE. c. The lack of quantifiable assessment strategies makes it verydifficult to evaluate the benefits pupils gain from the delivery ofthese subjects. d. Severe timetable constraints and a lack of appropriately trainedteaching staff are hindering the effective development and delivery ofthese areas. Therefore, the objectives of this project are as follows: a. To critically evaluate and review the learning and teachingmethods which are currently being used to deliver citizenship and PSHEin order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. c. To analyse how these subjects and their interrelationship willdevelop in the future and determine how learning and teaching methodswill need to change in order to satisfy the new requirements. 2.1 The Teaching of Citizenship in UK Schools – A Historical Perspective The teaching of citizenship in UK schools has a long and problematicalhistory. Since the beginning of the twentieth century it has undergonea number of transformations. Up to the outbreak of the First World War,the purpose of citizenship education was to generate a sense ofnational cohesion, loyalty and obligation to the nature, as well as asense of pride in the Empire (Oliver and Heater, 1994). The secondphase of citizenship in education witnessed the rise of a more directapproach. That is, the systematic training of young people in deferenceand moral behaviour. Schools were encouraged to promote and cultivatethe â€Å"simple virtues of humility, service, restraint and respect forpersonality† (Ministry of Education, 1949, p.41), in their pupils. The 1960s brought a new emphasis regarding the delivery of citizenshipin schools. Notably that young people needed to become more politicallyaware and more active in their participation of social issues. A morerecent development (1990) witnessed the introduction of citizenshipinto the National Curriculum as a cross-curricular theme. Suchcross-curricular themes have suffered a chequered history and remain atthe margins of school timetables with the main thrust of deliveryconcentrating on core subjects and other academic considerations. This historical perspective of citizenship provides an insight into theproblems the subject has faced because of its poor definition andineffectual delivery. To rectify this situation a government proposalsought to â€Å"establish more explicit and coherent provision in the areasof personal, social and health education and citizenship† (DfEE, 1999,p. 1). The proposal aimed to introduce a framework across all keystages for personal, social and health education and citizenship.Furthermore, this development established â€Å"a coherent nationalframework which gives schools flexibility to develop their ownapproaches.† (DfEE, 1999, p. 13). Whilst this approach raised the profile of citizenship and sought toestablish it as an integral part of the National Curriculum, it createda number of problems. How exactly was it going to fit into a schooltimetable? As outlined earlier, in section 1.3, there have beennumerous problems with the National Curriculum, since its launch in1988. In 1999, there were yet again a number of government initiativesto reduce the prescriptive nature of the National Curriculum andprovide schools with greater flexibility. On the whole these changeslike previous initiatives only resulted in cosmetic changes. The other major problem with the new version of citizenship lay withthe delivery. Who exactly was going to teach this subject? It wasproposed that the knowledge required to teach the subject could begained from the core of an initial teacher training degree orpostgraduate certificate in education. Teachers already delivering PSHEcould acquire the knowledge and skills required to deliver citizenshipthrough continuous professional development. Having analysed the teaching of citizenship within the UK in terms ofthe current situation and from an historical perspective, it isnecessary to explore how this issue is dealt with by other countries.This will provide the opportunity to compare and contrast the UKexperience with other nations and determine whether there are anylessons to be learnt. In other words are there examples of goodpractice overseas? If so, is it transferable to schools in the UK? 2.2 The Teaching of Citizenship in the United States In the United States education for citizenship has been a longstanding goal of schools. To achieve this goal, students must learntheir civil rights and responsibilities in a free society. In 1991 JohnJ Patrick provided a review of why this was necessary and outlined howit could be achieved. Five key points, which are outlined below, formedthe basis of this review. a. The importance of teaching about the responsibilities of citizenship b. Deficiencies in learning about responsible citizenship c. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at home d. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at school e. Where to obtain information and materials about how to teach responsible citizenship The rationale for teaching citizenship was based upon the premise thatthe preservation of civil rights and liberties is linked to theperformance of responsibilities. Thus the responsibilities ofcitizenship – such as voluntary service to the community, participationin the political system etc – were essential to ensure the maintenanceof civil rights and liberties. However, reports on civic learning bythe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), indicated thatthe majority of students in the 12th grade had a very limited knowledgeof government and citizenship in the United States. Furthermore, halfof the students in the 12th grade failed to demonstrate the knowledgeneeded for responsible participation in the political system. Thus in 1991 there was a clear need to improve the learning of youngAmericans about their responsibilities as citizens in a moderndemocracy. In effect Patrick was advocating a holistic approach to theteaching of citizenship within American schools. That is, young peopleneeded to become actively involved in every aspect of American life.Consequently he provided a list of organisations where materials couldbe obtained in order to aid the delivery of this subject. For example,the American Bar Association which operated a Special Committee onYouth Education for Citizenship, the Constitutional Rights Foundation,Council for the Advancement of Citizenship, the Social ScienceEducation Consortium and so on. The approach actively promoted by Patrick failed to have the desiredeffect. In 1991 the NAEP reported poor levels of attainment amongst12th graders with regard to citizenship and its related areas. Theresults of the 1998 NAEP civics examination completed by a sample of4th, 8th and 12th grade students across the United States showed thatstudents were not proficient in the skills that enable citizens to usetheir civic knowledge. The NAEP 2001 History Report Card results alsoshowed a similar lack of proficiency. President Bush launched a number of initiatives in 2003 to improve theawareness of citizenship and associated areas among young peoplethroughout the United States. Some of these initiatives are highlightedbelow: †¢ Idea of American Essay Contest: High School juniors nationwide areinvited to submit a 1,200 word essay on the â€Å"Idea of America† andreceive awards. †¢ â€Å"Heroes of History† Lecture: An annual lecture that features anacclaimed scholar telling the story of a hero in American life. Theselectures are made available to school libraries throughout the UnitedStates. President Bush participated in Pledge Across America, a nationwidepatriotic observation that invited every school child in America toparticipate in a simultaneous pledge of allegiance at 2pm EasternDaylight Time. The pledge was observed on the 215th anniversary of theUnited States Constitution, the conclusion of the first-ever NationalCivic Participation Week, and the beginning of Constitution Week(Source: http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/edu/fs091702.htm). 2.3 What Can We Learn From The Americans With Regard To Teaching Citizenship? The analysis of the American experience raises a number ofinteresting points. Notably the American educational authorities viathe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) are activelyengaged in measuring students’ attainment with regard to theirknowledge and understanding of citizenship issues. As noted the resultson the whole have been poor. In the UK citizenship is taught throughoutall of the Key Stages of the National Curriculum. However, in Key Stages 1 and 2, there is no requirement for the formalassessment of pupils’ knowledge and understanding of citizenship issues(Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). Progress in this subject issummarised in each pupil’s annual school report. In Key Stage 3, thereis an end-of-stage assessment. Whilst in Key Stage 4 there is nostatutory requirement for assessment. Three short courses are availablei.e. GCSE Citizenship Studies. The AQA (Assessment and QualificationsAlliance) version of this qualification requires students to undertakea 1.5 hour examination and complete a project. Should the UK adopt the United States assessment model? It wouldprovide the opportunity to quantify each pupil’s level of knowledge andunderstanding of citizenship issues throughout each Key Stage of theNational Curriculum. Such an approach would provide data which could beanalysed to determine the effectiveness of the teaching and learningstrategies that are currently deployed to deliver citizenship within UKschools. However, such a proposal would be met with stiff resistancefrom a variety of sources (i.e. teachers, parents, educationalistsetc). It is already considered in many quarters that school children inthe UK are already over assessed. Also it is interesting to note that the American model of citizenshipis radically different from the British version. The informationprovided about the American experience includes such phrases as â€Å"Heroesof History†. The British equivalent would mean portraying the likes ofHoratio Nelson and the Duke of Wellington as â€Å"heroes†. Thus theAmerican model concentrates heavily on patriotism (e.g. Pledge AcrossAmerica) and herein lays a broader issue. The United States isuniversally criticised throughout the world for being too insular, tooselfish and is not perceived as accepting its global responsibility tothe non-American citizens of the world. The American version ofcitizenship does not seem to recognise the word â€Å"global†. 2.4 The Future of Citizenship – Beyond National Boundaries The European Union has been in existence for nearly 50 years. However,until very recently, education remained untouched by the gradualmovement towards the pan European state. Curricula development andcontent were protected by each member-state. Since the advent of theMaastricht Treaty, the EU has developed and funded a number ofeducational initiatives to promote the concept of a â€Å"European superstate†; largely it must be said, without success. The Commission’sattempts to â€Å"Europeanise† education remained largely ineffective,mostly confined to the recognition of diplomas, vocational educationand the exchange of language teaching programmes (Soysal, 2001). However, a closer look at the way â€Å"Europe†, â€Å"nation† and â€Å"citizenship†are being represented in school books and curricula, particularly inthe disciplines of history and civics reveals another kind ofâ€Å"Europeanisation process† – that is, how European identity is likely toemerge and of significance to this project – how it will be taught inEuropean schools. This process is happening through highly active andinformal networks – largely unmonitored by formal EU institutions.Teachers’ unions and associations, academics and scientific experts,advocacy groups etc – are busy networking, arranging conferences etc –on â€Å"teaching Europe†. Perhaps the most significant development in this process is thedisappearance of the â€Å"nation state† – historical events are now retoldwithin a European perspective and a not within a nationalisticstraightjacket. National identities locate their legitimacy in deeplyrooted histories, cultures or territories. But Europe is notpast-oriented: it is future orientated. What does this mean for theteaching of citizenship in schools throughout Europe? It has long beenrecognised that these problems can only be resolved by nations actingas one. This is why the United States receives a lot of criticism, asit constantly failed to sign up to international agreements on carbonemissions etc. Thus the â€Å"Europeanisation process† is merely a steppingstone towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Learning for global citizenship is about understanding the need totackle injustice and inequality, and having the desire and ability towork effectively to do so: this is referred to as Action Competence(Jensen and Schnak, 1994). An example of a resource that provides aframework for learner-centred delivery would be Get Global! This iswhere pupils are involved in every aspect of their own educationalexperience. The Oxford Schools Catalogue contains a wide range ofmaterials published by Oxfam and others, focused on learning for GlobalCitizenship (Source:www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/teachers/catalogue.htm). 2.5 A Brief History of Sex Education in UK Schools In England from the late 19th century, a number of sex educationpublications were produced, mainly aimed at helping parents toenlighten their children. The Second World War had a huge impact on thepopulation of Europe. Fresh emphasis in sex education was placed onpreventing syphilis and gonorrhoea. In the 1950s and 1960s sexeducation in schools was carried out through the descriptions of thereproductive habits of plants and animals. By the beginning of the1970s, school sex education was beginning to change significantly. Forexample, methods of contraception began to be more widely taught. The 1980s witnesses further developments in sex education. The rise offeminist-thinking led to an increase in the number of programmes thatencouraged pupils to examine the roles played by men and women. Sexeducation programmes began to have such aims as the acquisition ofskills for decision-making, communicating, personal relationships,parenting and coping strategies. HIV and AIDS became a health issue inthe UK just when sex education became a political football. A number ofsituations arose – the 1985 Gillick case, which focused on whetherparents always have the right to know if their children are beingissued with contraceptives when under the age of 16 – the growingstrength of the lesbian and gay movement, lead to the polarisation ofviews on sex education, among politicians at local and national level. Thus sex education, as was with citizenship, has become politicallycontroversial. Recent school sex education programmes have variedconsiderably in their aims. At one extreme (rarely found in the UK butwell-funded and widespread in the USA), abstinence education aims toensure that young people do not engage in heavy petting or sexualintercourse before marriage. At the other end of the scale, some sexeducation programmes, challenge sexist and homophobic attitudes(Source: www.open2.net/sundaysurgery/thehistoryp.html). 2.6 Summary Of The Key Factors In the UK and USA there is a realisation that young people need tobecome actively in all aspects of national life (e.g. politics, localcommunity, environment etc). However, there are major differencesbetween the two countries. The American approach towards citizenship isbased heavily on patriotism. In many respects the current Americanmodel of citizenship seems similar to the one that pertained in the UKin the early part of the 20th century. Despite America’s best effortsto increase young people’s knowledge and understanding of citizenshipconcepts, the NAEP results show no increase in student attainmentbetween 1991 and 2001. The Americans seem to be ignoring the development of citizenship beyondnational boundaries. In order to solve the world’s problems we need toact as one unified force – hence we all need to embrace â€Å"globalcitizenship†. Sex education has moved substantially from its extremelylimited earlier forms to embrace a broader spectrum of sexual andsocial issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, homosexuality etc). When this is comparedto the American experience, again like citizenship, there are hugedifferences in terms of objectives and content. Many American sexeducation programmes are founded on very conservative moral values. 2.7 Conclusions That Can Be Drawn From The Literature Review In Relation To The Objectives Of The Project a. To critically evaluate and review the learning andteaching methods which are currently being used to deliver citizenshipand PSHE in order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. The literature review has shown that there are major problems inassessing the benefits that young people derive from these subjects.Formal assessment is broken down into two elements – formative (i.e.on-course – an assignment etc) and summative (i.e. end-of-the course –an exam, a completed portfolio etc). In the USA the NAEP results do notshow an increase in students’ knowledge and understanding ofcitizenship concepts. Within the National Curriculum, citizenship andPHSE have a minimum of formal assessment requirements. However, are formal assessment methods the best way to determinewhether students are benefiting from citizenship and PHSE? The purposeof these subjects is to help young people become better adults e.g. toact and behave in a morally and socially responsible manner etc. Thusit is reasonable to argue that formal assessment methods can onlyprovide a superficial measure of a young person’s knowledge andunderstanding of these concepts. What does measuring a person’s abilityto recall facts actually tell us? In reality a person will gain from a well delivered citizenship andPHSE programme in the longer term. They will become a more sociallyresponsible person; they will become a more effective parent and so on.Thus teaching these subjects is in effect an act of faith – we hopethat benefits will be produced in the longer term. A longitudinal studyis required i.e. one where a group of students is tracked for a numberof years. However, there are many factors involved when someone turnsout to a good parent etc. It would be extremely hard to isolate theinfluences of citizenship and PHSE from all the other issues that areinvolved e.g. family background etc. Whilst it is nigh on impossible to assess the long-term benefits peoplegain from these subjects – it is possible to utilise existing learningand teaching methods to generate immediate benefits for the studentsconcerned. How this can be achieved will be analysed in the latterstages of the project. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. Has the literature review identify examples of good practice withregard to the teaching of citizenship and PHSE? Given the politicalcontroversy these subjects generate – there can only be one answer tothis question. It depends upon your point of view – determining whethersomething is an example of good practice is in the eye of the beholder.The key to progression is to establish and develop a wider audience forthe objectives you are trying to achieve. For example, the â€Å"Europeanisation process† demonstrates how differentorganisations, individuals etc – by working together, can create forumsfor discussion and the dissemination of new ideas, materials etc. TheInternet has revolutionised how people communicate and accessinformation. This allows people and organisations to bypass nationalboundaries and work towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Thus if they are going to be meaningful and allow young people toconnect and become part of â€Å"global citizenship† – the academic contentof citizenship and PHSE must reflect current developments. This meansthat learning and teaching methods must continuously evolve to ensurethat the delivery of these subjects reflects current trends anddevelopments. How this can be achieved will be explored in the latterstages of the project. c. To analyse how these subjects and theirinterrelationship will develop in the future and determine how learningand teaching methods will need to change in order to satisfy the newrequirements. A key feature of PHSE is that young people should practice â€Å"safe sex†.In its most literal form this simply means making sure that youngpeople have adequate access to and use of contraceptive methods. Insome quarters it would be argued that â€Å"safe sex† must involve moral,social and emotional responsibilities. Are these areas PHSE orcitizenship concepts? Whatever your view and political stance there isclearly an overlap between the two subjects. Future curricularinitiatives and the development of learning and teaching methods mustembrace the close interrelationship between these academic areas. 3.1 What Must The Research Methodology Achieve? In order to fulfil the requirements of the project objectives the research methodology must address the following issues: a. The analysis of the learning and teaching methods that are beingused to deliver citizenship and PHSE within UK schools in order todetermine their effectiveness. b. The critical evaluation of the assessment strategies that are used to measure pupil attainment within these subjects. c. An evaluation of how learning, teaching and assessment strategiesmust develop to ensure that citizenship and PHSE remain relevant to theneeds of young people. The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988 in order to develop acomprehensive approach to the delivery and development of educationwithin the UK. A number of government departments and agencies areresponsible for managing the content, development, delivery andeffectiveness of the education system. The research methodology mustinvestigate the work of these government departments and agencies inrelation to citizenship and PHSE. This is necessary in order to addressthe issues outlined above. How will this be achieved? The work of three different bodies must be investigated. These are as follows: a. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) was establishedwith the purpose of creating opportunity, realising potential andachieving excellent for all. The Qualifications Curriculum Authority(QCA) is a non-departmental public body, sponsored by the DfES. It isresponsible for maintaining and developing the National Curriculum andassociated assessments, tests and examinations; and accredits andmonitors qualifications in colleges and at work. It is thisorganisation which is responsible for managing and developing thecurricular content of citizenship and PHSE and providing guidance onlearning and teaching methods. b. The Office for Educational Standards (OFSTED) is the inspectoratefor children and learners in England. Its main responsibility is tocontribute to the provision of better education and care. This isachieved through a comprehensive system of inspection and regulationcovering childcare, schools, colleges, children’s services, teachertraining and youth work. Thus it inspects and evaluates the teaching ofcitizenship and PHSE throughout England. c. The practitioners (i.e. the school managers, teachers, supportworkers etc) are responsible for delivering the curricular content ofcitizenship and PHSE in accordance with the standards and methodsstated and disseminated by the DfES and the QCA. 3.2 What Methods Will The Research Methodology Use? Secondary research is the investigation of data sources which alreadyexist. The main advantage of using such sources is that they arereadily available and can be utilised to develop knowledge andunderstanding of a given situation. Primary research entails generatinginformation, which did not previously exist. This is necessary whensecondary data sources do not fulfil the information requirements of aresearch project. In order to investigate the work of the DfES, QCA and OFSTED, it is notnecessary to conduct primary research. This is because of two reasons.One, the government wants the work of these bodies to be transparentand within the public domain. Two, easily accessible secondary datasources will be sufficient to facilitate the objectives of thisproject. As stated, the websites for the DfES, QCA and OFSTED provideaccess to numerous reports and information on all aspects of theiroperations. Therefore, the research method that will be used to analysethis data is documentary analysis. In effect this involves analysingreports and relating the findings to the project objectives. However, in any given project or area of research different opinionswill prevail. If you like – DfES, QCA and OFSTED represent thegovernment’s views. What does everybody else think? The practitioners –as listed above – are at the sharp end of the business – Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools This project addresses the problems that are currently being encountered with regard to the delivery of citizenship and PHSE within UK schools. To give emergent themes context – an historical review of their academic treatment is presented. This is broadened by considering the United States delivery of these subjects to determine whether the UK can learn anything from the American experience. Documentary analysis and interview schedules are the research methods used to analyse secondary sources and generate primary data. A number of conclusions are drawn – namely these subjects must be linked to current issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, global citizenship etc) of the day – to ensure that their content and delivery remain relevant to the needs of young people. Recommendations for a more flexible approach regarding the delivery and assessment of these subjects are made at the end of the study. 1.1 What Does â€Å"Citizenship† Mean? Before it is possible to critically review and evaluate th eeffectiveness of the learning and teaching methods that are used to deliver citizenship and PHSE, it is necessary to begin by analysing their rationale and curricular content. In other words what are these subjects about and what are the benefits that pupils gain by studying them? Answering this question will provide a framework within which it can be determined whethercurrent academic practices are satisfying the aims and objectives ofthese subjects. Citizenship is a concept that can have a myriad of meanings andinterpretations. There is no universally agreed definition. Models of citizenship vary from country to country. The concept is continuously contested by political parties, academics and pressure groups. Despite the many interpretations of the concept that exist, all notions of citizenship imply to a greater or lesser degree, membership of apolitical community that is internally defined by rights, duties, participation and identity. The term â€Å"Active Citizenship† is widely used, but again there is no single accepted definition. The phrase is open to interpretation. From an educational perspective when there is no universally accepteddefinition of a concept, it makes it extremely difficult to transform such a subject into a meaningful learning experience for young people. In other words there are no â€Å"hard and fast† rules which can be appliedby teachers. When a concept has a clear and universally accepteddefinition, it provides the means by which to breakdown the subject into manageable chunks of learning. Thus students become skilled and knowledgeable when applying each component to a given set of circumstances. For example, in Business Studies, if you wish to measure the financialperformance of a company, it is possible to apply a number ofuniversally accepted accounting ratios. This forms a set ofâ€Å"standards†, which are quantifiable and which can be applied in a constant manner to a variety of different situations over a period of time. When it is possible to apply clearly defined and universally accepted standards to a subject or a concept – it becomes relativelyeasy to teach and learn. When a student understands how each component of a subject works, it isthen possible to interlink these areas and increase the complexity oflearning activities. Thus over time the student will master each stage(i.e. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,evaluation) of the cognitive learning domain (Source:www.businessballs.com, Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains).Students will have a holistic view of the subject content and willunderstand how the constituent components interlink. Given that citizenship does not have a universally accepted definition; is it possible to develop a set of â€Å"standards†, which can be constantly applied? Citizenship poses serious problems for educationalists interms of its definition and delivery as a subject to young people throughout the UK. What are the statutory requirements for teaching citizenship? It is a statutory subject at key stages 3 and 4. Apartfrom the absence of an eight-level scale of achievement, it is treatedexactly the same as other foundation subjects in the National Curriculum. Schools are required to establish high standards for citizenship that are comparable with standards in other subjects (Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). 1.2 What Are The Similarities Between Citizenship And PHSE? Both subjects are similar in their emphasis on values and attitudes,and in their concern to empower young people to act effectively andwith self-confidence. They are also similar in some of the themes they explore; such drug abuse and equal opportunities – and their emphasison active learning techniques like role play and discussion. What distinguishes the two concepts are their focus and content. PHSE focuses on personal and inter-personal decision making, whilecitizenship education deals with â€Å"public policy†. PHSE is concernedwith students’ choices as private individuals, the other with their rights as citizens. For example, a typical PSHE lesson on smoking deals withlegal rights and responsibilities, whereas a citizenship lesson focuseson the cost to society – exploring issues such as legislation onsmoking in public places or tobacco advertising. Thus citizenship canbe viewed as the global or societal perspective on key issues e.g.smoking etc. PHSE, on the other hand, concentrates on the needs, expectations and responsibilities of the individual. 1.3 Why Is It Necessary To Investigate The Teaching And Learning Methods Of Citizenship and PSHE? In 2004 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) published areport (PSHE 2002/3 annual report on curriculum and assessment, QCA,March 2004) on the delivery of PSHE within schools in England. In thesummary of key findings it was noted that in some schools, there wasconfusion about what the differences and similarities between PSHE andcitizenship. Also even when schools had allocated a significant amount of curriculum time to the delivery of their PSHE programmes, it was rare for the assessment of pupils’ progress and achievement to take place. Ever since the National Curriculum was launched in 1988 there have been major concerns over the time available to deliver all of the core subjects (e.g. English, Mathematics etc). The introduction of new subjects (i.e. Citizenship in September 2002) places an even greater pressure on school timetables, teaching staff and resources. The major problems may be summarised as follows: a. As explained in section 1.1 there is no universally accepted definition of citizenship. b. There is confusion over the similarities and differences between citizenship and PSHE. c. The lack of quantifiable assessment strategies makes it verydifficult to evaluate the benefits pupils gain from the delivery ofthese subjects. d. Severe timetable constraints and a lack of appropriately trainedteaching staff are hindering the effective development and delivery ofthese areas. Therefore, the objectives of this project are as follows: a. To critically evaluate and review the learning and teachingmethods which are currently being used to deliver citizenship and PSHEin order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. c. To analyse how these subjects and their interrelationship willdevelop in the future and determine how learning and teaching methodswill need to change in order to satisfy the new requirements. 2.1 The Teaching of Citizenship in UK Schools – A Historical Perspective The teaching of citizenship in UK schools has a long and problematicalhistory. Since the beginning of the twentieth century it has undergonea number of transformations. Up to the outbreak of the First World War,the purpose of citizenship education was to generate a sense ofnational cohesion, loyalty and obligation to the nature, as well as asense of pride in the Empire (Oliver and Heater, 1994). The secondphase of citizenship in education witnessed the rise of a more directapproach. That is, the systematic training of young people in deferenceand moral behaviour. Schools were encouraged to promote and cultivatethe â€Å"simple virtues of humility, service, restraint and respect forpersonality† (Ministry of Education, 1949, p.41), in their pupils. The 1960s brought a new emphasis regarding the delivery of citizenshipin schools. Notably that young people needed to become more politicallyaware and more active in their participation of social issues. A morerecent development (1990) witnessed the introduction of citizenshipinto the National Curriculum as a cross-curricular theme. Suchcross-curricular themes have suffered a chequered history and remain atthe margins of school timetables with the main thrust of deliveryconcentrating on core subjects and other academic considerations. This historical perspective of citizenship provides an insight into theproblems the subject has faced because of its poor definition andineffectual delivery. To rectify this situation a government proposalsought to â€Å"establish more explicit and coherent provision in the areasof personal, social and health education and citizenship† (DfEE, 1999,p. 1). The proposal aimed to introduce a framework across all keystages for personal, social and health education and citizenship.Furthermore, this development established â€Å"a coherent nationalframework which gives schools flexibility to develop their ownapproaches.† (DfEE, 1999, p. 13). Whilst this approach raised the profile of citizenship and sought toestablish it as an integral part of the National Curriculum, it createda number of problems. How exactly was it going to fit into a schooltimetable? As outlined earlier, in section 1.3, there have beennumerous problems with the National Curriculum, since its launch in1988. In 1999, there were yet again a number of government initiativesto reduce the prescriptive nature of the National Curriculum andprovide schools with greater flexibility. On the whole these changeslike previous initiatives only resulted in cosmetic changes. The other major problem with the new version of citizenship lay withthe delivery. Who exactly was going to teach this subject? It wasproposed that the knowledge required to teach the subject could begained from the core of an initial teacher training degree orpostgraduate certificate in education. Teachers already delivering PSHEcould acquire the knowledge and skills required to deliver citizenshipthrough continuous professional development. Having analysed the teaching of citizenship within the UK in terms ofthe current situation and from an historical perspective, it isnecessary to explore how this issue is dealt with by other countries.This will provide the opportunity to compare and contrast the UKexperience with other nations and determine whether there are anylessons to be learnt. In other words are there examples of goodpractice overseas? If so, is it transferable to schools in the UK? 2.2 The Teaching of Citizenship in the United States In the United States education for citizenship has been a longstanding goal of schools. To achieve this goal, students must learntheir civil rights and responsibilities in a free society. In 1991 JohnJ Patrick provided a review of why this was necessary and outlined howit could be achieved. Five key points, which are outlined below, formedthe basis of this review. a. The importance of teaching about the responsibilities of citizenship b. Deficiencies in learning about responsible citizenship c. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at home d. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at school e. Where to obtain information and materials about how to teach responsible citizenship The rationale for teaching citizenship was based upon the premise thatthe preservation of civil rights and liberties is linked to theperformance of responsibilities. Thus the responsibilities ofcitizenship – such as voluntary service to the community, participationin the political system etc – were essential to ensure the maintenanceof civil rights and liberties. However, reports on civic learning bythe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), indicated thatthe majority of students in the 12th grade had a very limited knowledgeof government and citizenship in the United States. Furthermore, halfof the students in the 12th grade failed to demonstrate the knowledgeneeded for responsible participation in the political system. Thus in 1991 there was a clear need to improve the learning of youngAmericans about their responsibilities as citizens in a moderndemocracy. In effect Patrick was advocating a holistic approach to theteaching of citizenship within American schools. That is, young peopleneeded to become actively involved in every aspect of American life.Consequently he provided a list of organisations where materials couldbe obtained in order to aid the delivery of this subject. For example,the American Bar Association which operated a Special Committee onYouth Education for Citizenship, the Constitutional Rights Foundation,Council for the Advancement of Citizenship, the Social ScienceEducation Consortium and so on. The approach actively promoted by Patrick failed to have the desiredeffect. In 1991 the NAEP reported poor levels of attainment amongst12th graders with regard to citizenship and its related areas. Theresults of the 1998 NAEP civics examination completed by a sample of4th, 8th and 12th grade students across the United States showed thatstudents were not proficient in the skills that enable citizens to usetheir civic knowledge. The NAEP 2001 History Report Card results alsoshowed a similar lack of proficiency. President Bush launched a number of initiatives in 2003 to improve theawareness of citizenship and associated areas among young peoplethroughout the United States. Some of these initiatives are highlightedbelow: †¢ Idea of American Essay Contest: High School juniors nationwide areinvited to submit a 1,200 word essay on the â€Å"Idea of America† andreceive awards. †¢ â€Å"Heroes of History† Lecture: An annual lecture that features anacclaimed scholar telling the story of a hero in American life. Theselectures are made available to school libraries throughout the UnitedStates. President Bush participated in Pledge Across America, a nationwidepatriotic observation that invited every school child in America toparticipate in a simultaneous pledge of allegiance at 2pm EasternDaylight Time. The pledge was observed on the 215th anniversary of theUnited States Constitution, the conclusion of the first-ever NationalCivic Participation Week, and the beginning of Constitution Week(Source: http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/edu/fs091702.htm). 2.3 What Can We Learn From The Americans With Regard To Teaching Citizenship? The analysis of the American experience raises a number ofinteresting points. Notably the American educational authorities viathe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) are activelyengaged in measuring students’ attainment with regard to theirknowledge and understanding of citizenship issues. As noted the resultson the whole have been poor. In the UK citizenship is taught throughoutall of the Key Stages of the National Curriculum. However, in Key Stages 1 and 2, there is no requirement for the formalassessment of pupils’ knowledge and understanding of citizenship issues(Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). Progress in this subject issummarised in each pupil’s annual school report. In Key Stage 3, thereis an end-of-stage assessment. Whilst in Key Stage 4 there is nostatutory requirement for assessment. Three short courses are availablei.e. GCSE Citizenship Studies. The AQA (Assessment and QualificationsAlliance) version of this qualification requires students to undertakea 1.5 hour examination and complete a project. Should the UK adopt the United States assessment model? It wouldprovide the opportunity to quantify each pupil’s level of knowledge andunderstanding of citizenship issues throughout each Key Stage of theNational Curriculum. Such an approach would provide data which could beanalysed to determine the effectiveness of the teaching and learningstrategies that are currently deployed to deliver citizenship within UKschools. However, such a proposal would be met with stiff resistancefrom a variety of sources (i.e. teachers, parents, educationalistsetc). It is already considered in many quarters that school children inthe UK are already over assessed. Also it is interesting to note that the American model of citizenshipis radically different from the British version. The informationprovided about the American experience includes such phrases as â€Å"Heroesof History†. The British equivalent would mean portraying the likes ofHoratio Nelson and the Duke of Wellington as â€Å"heroes†. Thus theAmerican model concentrates heavily on patriotism (e.g. Pledge AcrossAmerica) and herein lays a broader issue. The United States isuniversally criticised throughout the world for being too insular, tooselfish and is not perceived as accepting its global responsibility tothe non-American citizens of the world. The American version ofcitizenship does not seem to recognise the word â€Å"global†. 2.4 The Future of Citizenship – Beyond National Boundaries The European Union has been in existence for nearly 50 years. However,until very recently, education remained untouched by the gradualmovement towards the pan European state. Curricula development andcontent were protected by each member-state. Since the advent of theMaastricht Treaty, the EU has developed and funded a number ofeducational initiatives to promote the concept of a â€Å"European superstate†; largely it must be said, without success. The Commission’sattempts to â€Å"Europeanise† education remained largely ineffective,mostly confined to the recognition of diplomas, vocational educationand the exchange of language teaching programmes (Soysal, 2001). However, a closer look at the way â€Å"Europe†, â€Å"nation† and â€Å"citizenship†are being represented in school books and curricula, particularly inthe disciplines of history and civics reveals another kind ofâ€Å"Europeanisation process† – that is, how European identity is likely toemerge and of significance to this project – how it will be taught inEuropean schools. This process is happening through highly active andinformal networks – largely unmonitored by formal EU institutions.Teachers’ unions and associations, academics and scientific experts,advocacy groups etc – are busy networking, arranging conferences etc –on â€Å"teaching Europe†. Perhaps the most significant development in this process is thedisappearance of the â€Å"nation state† – historical events are now retoldwithin a European perspective and a not within a nationalisticstraightjacket. National identities locate their legitimacy in deeplyrooted histories, cultures or territories. But Europe is notpast-oriented: it is future orientated. What does this mean for theteaching of citizenship in schools throughout Europe? It has long beenrecognised that these problems can only be resolved by nations actingas one. This is why the United States receives a lot of criticism, asit constantly failed to sign up to international agreements on carbonemissions etc. Thus the â€Å"Europeanisation process† is merely a steppingstone towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Learning for global citizenship is about understanding the need totackle injustice and inequality, and having the desire and ability towork effectively to do so: this is referred to as Action Competence(Jensen and Schnak, 1994). An example of a resource that provides aframework for learner-centred delivery would be Get Global! This iswhere pupils are involved in every aspect of their own educationalexperience. The Oxford Schools Catalogue contains a wide range ofmaterials published by Oxfam and others, focused on learning for GlobalCitizenship (Source:www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/teachers/catalogue.htm). 2.5 A Brief History of Sex Education in UK Schools In England from the late 19th century, a number of sex educationpublications were produced, mainly aimed at helping parents toenlighten their children. The Second World War had a huge impact on thepopulation of Europe. Fresh emphasis in sex education was placed onpreventing syphilis and gonorrhoea. In the 1950s and 1960s sexeducation in schools was carried out through the descriptions of thereproductive habits of plants and animals. By the beginning of the1970s, school sex education was beginning to change significantly. Forexample, methods of contraception began to be more widely taught. The 1980s witnesses further developments in sex education. The rise offeminist-thinking led to an increase in the number of programmes thatencouraged pupils to examine the roles played by men and women. Sexeducation programmes began to have such aims as the acquisition ofskills for decision-making, communicating, personal relationships,parenting and coping strategies. HIV and AIDS became a health issue inthe UK just when sex education became a political football. A number ofsituations arose – the 1985 Gillick case, which focused on whetherparents always have the right to know if their children are beingissued with contraceptives when under the age of 16 – the growingstrength of the lesbian and gay movement, lead to the polarisation ofviews on sex education, among politicians at local and national level. Thus sex education, as was with citizenship, has become politicallycontroversial. Recent school sex education programmes have variedconsiderably in their aims. At one extreme (rarely found in the UK butwell-funded and widespread in the USA), abstinence education aims toensure that young people do not engage in heavy petting or sexualintercourse before marriage. At the other end of the scale, some sexeducation programmes, challenge sexist and homophobic attitudes(Source: www.open2.net/sundaysurgery/thehistoryp.html). 2.6 Summary Of The Key Factors In the UK and USA there is a realisation that young people need tobecome actively in all aspects of national life (e.g. politics, localcommunity, environment etc). However, there are major differencesbetween the two countries. The American approach towards citizenship isbased heavily on patriotism. In many respects the current Americanmodel of citizenship seems similar to the one that pertained in the UKin the early part of the 20th century. Despite America’s best effortsto increase young people’s knowledge and understanding of citizenshipconcepts, the NAEP results show no increase in student attainmentbetween 1991 and 2001. The Americans seem to be ignoring the development of citizenship beyondnational boundaries. In order to solve the world’s problems we need toact as one unified force – hence we all need to embrace â€Å"globalcitizenship†. Sex education has moved substantially from its extremelylimited earlier forms to embrace a broader spectrum of sexual andsocial issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, homosexuality etc). When this is comparedto the American experience, again like citizenship, there are hugedifferences in terms of objectives and content. Many American sexeducation programmes are founded on very conservative moral values. 2.7 Conclusions That Can Be Drawn From The Literature Review In Relation To The Objectives Of The Project a. To critically evaluate and review the learning andteaching methods which are currently being used to deliver citizenshipand PSHE in order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. The literature review has shown that there are major problems inassessing the benefits that young people derive from these subjects.Formal assessment is broken down into two elements – formative (i.e.on-course – an assignment etc) and summative (i.e. end-of-the course –an exam, a completed portfolio etc). In the USA the NAEP results do notshow an increase in students’ knowledge and understanding ofcitizenship concepts. Within the National Curriculum, citizenship andPHSE have a minimum of formal assessment requirements. However, are formal assessment methods the best way to determinewhether students are benefiting from citizenship and PHSE? The purposeof these subjects is to help young people become better adults e.g. toact and behave in a morally and socially responsible manner etc. Thusit is reasonable to argue that formal assessment methods can onlyprovide a superficial measure of a young person’s knowledge andunderstanding of these concepts. What does measuring a person’s abilityto recall facts actually tell us? In reality a person will gain from a well delivered citizenship andPHSE programme in the longer term. They will become a more sociallyresponsible person; they will become a more effective parent and so on.Thus teaching these subjects is in effect an act of faith – we hopethat benefits will be produced in the longer term. A longitudinal studyis required i.e. one where a group of students is tracked for a numberof years. However, there are many factors involved when someone turnsout to a good parent etc. It would be extremely hard to isolate theinfluences of citizenship and PHSE from all the other issues that areinvolved e.g. family background etc. Whilst it is nigh on impossible to assess the long-term benefits peoplegain from these subjects – it is possible to utilise existing learningand teaching methods to generate immediate benefits for the studentsconcerned. How this can be achieved will be analysed in the latterstages of the project. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. Has the literature review identify examples of good practice withregard to the teaching of citizenship and PHSE? Given the politicalcontroversy these subjects generate – there can only be one answer tothis question. It depends upon your point of view – determining whethersomething is an example of good practice is in the eye of the beholder.The key to progression is to establish and develop a wider audience forthe objectives you are trying to achieve. For example, the â€Å"Europeanisation process† demonstrates how differentorganisations, individuals etc – by working together, can create forumsfor discussion and the dissemination of new ideas, materials etc. TheInternet has revolutionised how people communicate and accessinformation. This allows people and organisations to bypass nationalboundaries and work towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Thus if they are going to be meaningful and allow young people toconnect and become part of â€Å"global citizenship† – the academic contentof citizenship and PHSE must reflect current developments. This meansthat learning and teaching methods must continuously evolve to ensurethat the delivery of these subjects reflects current trends anddevelopments. How this can be achieved will be explored in the latterstages of the project. c. To analyse how these subjects and theirinterrelationship will develop in the future and determine how learningand teaching methods will need to change in order to satisfy the newrequirements. A key feature of PHSE is that young people should practice â€Å"safe sex†.In its most literal form this simply means making sure that youngpeople have adequate access to and use of contraceptive methods. Insome quarters it would be argued that â€Å"safe sex† must involve moral,social and emotional responsibilities. Are these areas PHSE orcitizenship concepts? Whatever your view and political stance there isclearly an overlap between the two subjects. Future curricularinitiatives and the development of learning and teaching methods mustembrace the close interrelationship between these academic areas. 3.1 What Must The Research Methodology Achieve? In order to fulfil the requirements of the project objectives the research methodology must address the following issues: a. The analysis of the learning and teaching methods that are beingused to deliver citizenship and PHSE within UK schools in order todetermine their effectiveness. b. The critical evaluation of the assessment strategies that are used to measure pupil attainment within these subjects. c. An evaluation of how learning, teaching and assessment strategiesmust develop to ensure that citizenship and PHSE remain relevant to theneeds of young people. The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988 in order to develop acomprehensive approach to the delivery and development of educationwithin the UK. A number of government departments and agencies areresponsible for managing the content, development, delivery andeffectiveness of the education system. The research methodology mustinvestigate the work of these government departments and agencies inrelation to citizenship and PHSE. This is necessary in order to addressthe issues outlined above. How will this be achieved? The work of three different bodies must be investigated. These are as follows: a. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) was establishedwith the purpose of creating opportunity, realising potential andachieving excellent for all. The Qualifications Curriculum Authority(QCA) is a non-departmental public body, sponsored by the DfES. It isresponsible for maintaining and developing the National Curriculum andassociated assessments, tests and examinations; and accredits andmonitors qualifications in colleges and at work. It is thisorganisation which is responsible for managing and developing thecurricular content of citizenship and PHSE and providing guidance onlearning and teaching methods. b. The Office for Educational Standards (OFSTED) is the inspectoratefor children and learners in England. Its main responsibility is tocontribute to the provision of better education and care. This isachieved through a comprehensive system of inspection and regulationcovering childcare, schools, colleges, children’s services, teachertraining and youth work. Thus it inspects and evaluates the teaching ofcitizenship and PHSE throughout England. c. The practitioners (i.e. the school managers, teachers, supportworkers etc) are responsible for delivering the curricular content ofcitizenship and PHSE in accordance with the standards and methodsstated and disseminated by the DfES and the QCA. 3.2 What Methods Will The Research Methodology Use? Secondary research is the investigation of data sources which alreadyexist. The main advantage of using such sources is that they arereadily available and can be utilised to develop knowledge andunderstanding of a given situation. Primary research entails generatinginformation, which did not previously exist. This is necessary whensecondary data sources do not fulfil the information requirements of aresearch project. In order to investigate the work of the DfES, QCA and OFSTED, it is notnecessary to conduct primary research. This is because of two reasons.One, the government wants the work of these bodies to be transparentand within the public domain. Two, easily accessible secondary datasources will be sufficient to facilitate the objectives of thisproject. As stated, the websites for the DfES, QCA and OFSTED provideaccess to numerous reports and information on all aspects of theiroperations. Therefore, the research method that will be used to analysethis data is documentary analysis. In effect this involves analysingreports and relating the findings to the project objectives. However, in any given project or area of research different opinionswill prevail. If you like – DfES, QCA and OFSTED represent thegovernment’s views. What does everybody else think? The practitioners –as listed above – are at the sharp end of the business –